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Final frontiers

Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means. — Outer Space Treaty

It’s the year 2122. A space tug owned by the Weyland-Yutani Corp. and diverted by a distress signal has discovered a potentially valuable asset on a distant planet. But rival company Blue Sun says it registered an intellectual property claim on the planet’s biological resources even though it had never sent teams there.

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Who should prevail in court? The scenario may be set in the far future, but the law the decision might be based on is rooted in our past.

|  Individuals in space

All countries have laws, rules and governing bodies determining what is legal — and what is not. Emigrate to a new country, adopt a new legal system. But what about moving to a new planet or space station? Under which — or whose — jurisdiction would your new home fall? Would there be one at all?

Maritime law could be one model to follow. When a ship is in international waters, the laws of the country of registration apply. An American cruise ship in the middle of the Pacific follows the American legal system. Should that ship drift into another country’s territorial waters, it would fall under the jurisdiction of the country whose territory it is physically in.

Currently, a spacecraft is considered an extension of its country of origin. So while on your space shuttle bus to your new home on the moon, the maritime international waters model applies. Upon landing, that’s where things get complicated.

According to the 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (more commonly known as the Outer Space Treaty or OST), “outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.”
Space belongs to no one — no law applies universally. Literally.

Enter “extraterritorial jurisdiction.” According to this principle, people are subject to the laws of their home country even outside its territories. When a person is in another country, that country’s laws supersede the home country’s laws — but when they aren’t in any country, like on the moon, the home country’s laws do apply. Two people on the moon could be subject to different laws.

The 1998 Space Station Agreement says, “Canada, the European Partner States, Japan, Russia, and the United States may exercise criminal jurisdiction over personnel in or on any flight element who are their respective nationals.” Extraterrestrial jurisdiction applies.

Yun Zhao is head of the department of law at the University of Hong Kong. In an article for Space Policy, Zhao writes: “Objects and personnel inside space objects that are transported from Earth into outer space do not enter a legal vacuum during their sojourn; they continue in a confirmed legal relationship with the Earth. This legal relationship is maintained and connected by registration.”

The Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space requires entities to establish and maintain the registration of space objects. It’s maritime law again, just in the vastness of space instead of the waves. According to Zhao, whether the space object is governmental or non-governmental is of no consequence: If an American company launches a spacecraft, it’s an American spacecraft and any person on board is subject to American law.

So far, fewer than 700 people have been to space. All planned to return — but what will govern those who choose to stay there?

|  Extraterrestrial human settlement

The China National Space Administration has been rapidly developing its space program, including a successful landing of a rover on the far side of the moon in 2019, and Mars in 2021. It has expressed interest in establishing a crewed lunar base and plans to send crewed missions by 2030.

Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty.

The Russian space agency, Roscosmos, has a long history of space exploration and has expressed interest in establishing a lunar base in partnership with other countries. NASA plans to send astronauts back to the moon by 2024 under the Artemis program, with plans for long-term space exploration and settlement. Within the next 100 years, the UAE aims to establish a human settlement on Mars. Historical explorations on Earth have taught us that whoever gets there first lays claim to the land.

But can this — and should this — apply to the extraterrestrial?

For the most part, current space exploration is an international collaborative effort. The challenges of exploring and utilizing space are immense and no single country can achieve them alone. By working together, countries can pool their resources, share expertise, and spread the risks and costs of space exploration. Look up at the International Space Station, a prime example of successful international collaboration in space, an unlikely if not impossible endeavor if it weren’t operated by a partnership of five space agencies: NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency (ESA), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).

Space exploration is inherently a global effort, and if this spirit of collaboration can continue, the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 could be enough to protect humankind’s interests in space. As no one may claim ownership of any celestial body, everything in space becomes the common heritage of humanity.

Perhaps this will suffice. Certainly, president of the International Institute of Space Law and ESA’s special advisor for political affairs Kai-Uwe Schrogl believes in it:

“Common heritage is the only thing that can save us,” Schrogl tells KUST Review. “We can learn from our experiences here on Earth and develop these principles of common heritage for space. Look at Antarctica or deep-sea mining.”

GRAPHICS: Anya Lambert & Anas Albounni

In 1960, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower proposed that the principles of the Antarctic Treaty of 1959 be applied to outer space. The signatories to the Antarctic Treaty (of which there were only 12 in 1959, but a further 17 signed by 2010) recognize “that it is in the interest of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord.”

Sounds familiar. There are many overlaps between the Antarctic Treaty and the Outer Space Treaty, which makes sense: They’re both remote, extreme environments with potentially valuable resources, and lots of people want to explore, exploit and possibly make territorial claims.

While only 50 countries have signed the Antarctic Treaty, 112 countries are party to the Outer Space Treaty, with another 23 signed but not ratified. This is encouraging to those with Schrogl’s worldview of optimism and common heritage, but there may be a more earthly reason: The Outer Space Treaty started as the 1963 Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, which prohibited nuclear weapons tests or detonations under water, in the atmosphere or in outer space. One hundred twenty-six countries signed that one.

However, as Schrogl points out to KUST Review: “We haven’t seen anyone break the Antarctica Treaty, and we haven’t seen anyone break space law.”

Within the next 100 years, the UAE aims to establish a human settlement on Mars.

As for claiming land, the Antarctica example works again. During the Antarctic Treaty discussions, many countries wanted to claim part of the continent by virtue of their citizens having reached there first, with some claims overlapping. The moon and Mars may offer more surface area to divvy up, but just like it was decided no country could claim sovereignty over any part of Antarctica, so too should the Outer Space Treaty hold up.

Zhao agrees: “More than 50 years after the OST entered into force, it is justifiable to hold that the non-appropriation principle has successfully ensured the safe and orderly development of space activities.”

|  Commercial space activities

The increasing commercialization of space is leading to new legal challenges, particularly in the areas of intellectual property and the use of space resources. Private companies like SpaceX and Blue Origin are playing an increasingly important role in space exploration, and there is a growing need for regulation of their activities. This includes issues related to liability, intellectual property and the use of space resources. As private companies begin to exploit resources like water and minerals on the moon and other celestial bodies, clear legal frameworks will need to be developed to govern these activities.

For the University of Hong Kong’s Zhao, intellectual property protection plays a significant role in promoting the sustainable development of space commercialization.

“Over the past few decades, the space sector has witnessed an accelerated speed of commercialization,” Zhao says. “Due to the advancement of space technology and gradual reduced cost of space exploration, private entities are looking for new chances to participate in the development of space commercialization. However, existing policies and treaties fail to consider international intellectual property.

GRAPHICS: Anya Lambert & Anas Albounni

 

“Given that space exploration heavily relies on technology, which certainly requires intellectual property rights protection, the expansion of space commercialization further enhances such demand. Without an explicit and standing legal basis in space law that provides IP protection to private entities, they may be deterred from investing and thereby actively participating in commercial space activities.

“Space commercialization cannot be disconnected from IP protection. The essentially public nature of outer space law appears to clash with the private nature of IP law,” Zhao adds.

At its core, IP law relates to the establishment and protection of intellectual creations, such as inventions, designs, patents and trademarks. IP law offers economic incentive because it allows people to benefit from the information and intellectual goods they create, protecting their ideas and preventing copying.

For the companies charging ahead in an unclear framework, the Outer Space Treaty holds up.

“Article II of the OST also states that outer space cannot be appropriated by means of use,” Zhao says. “Therefore, from a legal point of view, neither the scientific use nor commercial use of outer space will ever be sufficient to validate a territorial sovereignty claim. Landing on the moon constitutes a ‘use’ of outer space, but it does not and can never constitute a ‘national appropriation’ that leads to territorial sovereignty. The major purpose of Article II was to protect outer space from the potential conflict which may be caused by territorial or colonization-drive[n] ambitions.”

While he wants further clarification for the future, Zhao isn’t too worried for those private entities going forth now: “In general, the IP regime we have now should be fine.”

|  Space debris

With more and more objects being sent into space, the amount of space debris is increasing rapidly. This debris poses a significant risk to both manned and unmanned space missions, and there is currently no comprehensive international legal framework to regulate its removal.

University of Hong Kong’s Zhao points to the Outer Space Treaty:

“Article VI makes states internationally responsible for their national activities in space, and Article VII makes states internationally liable for their launch of space objects into outer space and the damage caused thereof.

Sounds simple enough, and Kaitlyn Johnson, author of the Center for Strategic and International Studies report on key governance issues in space, calls space debris mitigation one of the best developed areas of space law.

“Space debris is a growing problem with almost every launch,” she writes. “Many space experts acknowledge that without norms of behavior or debris removal missions, the space environment may be permanently damaged.

We haven’t seen anyone break the Antarctica Treaty, and we haven’t seen anyone break space law.

– Kai-Uwe Schrogl

There are several international mechanisms, national policies, and industry efforts to curb the creation and proliferation of space debris, but despite this progress, few international standards or norms exist.”

The few that do exist, Johnson adds, are out of date with today’s technology and the proliferation of commercial satellites. She points out the recent near miss between an ESA Earth observation satellite and one of SpaceX’s first satellites for its broadband internet provision plan. The U.S. Air Force tracked the two satellites, noting the chance of collision as 1 in 1,000. In the end, ESA chose to maneuver its satellite away from the SpaceX orbital path.

“In just this single example, it is clear that the lack of agreed international norms and processes for space-traffic management could have caused a devastating event in the space environment,” Johnson writes. “A lack of defined international regulations means the choice of how to proceed is left to the satellite operators, but in cases where satellites are not operational, and cannot be maneuvered out of the way, all the international community can do is wait and watch.”

P.J. Blount, IISL’s executive secretary and lecturer in law for Cardiff University, firmly agrees the most pressing concern for policymakers is the safety of operations in Earth’s orbit.

“At the moment, there is increasing congestion in parts of Earth’s orbital space, which has been coupled with a proliferation of space debris,” he tells KUST Review. “Space operations are coordinated through a variety of ad hoc frameworks, but as operators and objects increase these frameworks are strained under these burdens. While understanding how resource activities may work out in the future is important, on-orbit congestion and the need for space traffic is a problem that the space industry faces today.”

Johnson says 2019 saw the real start of united efforts to better coordinate space-debris management and space-traffic management measures. It started with the International Astronautical Congress in 2019, she says, where the international space community collectively called for better space-situational awareness and the need to mitigate debris-creating events in the space domain.

Later that year, the 92 member states of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) approved 21 new guidelines for space sustainability.

(For more on space debris check this out: Cleaning up our space)

These guidelines are voluntary and not legally binding, but Johnson says they signify a united effort to track all objects in space and to limit debris.

Part of this is the guideline encouraging increased communication between countries and non-governmental entities, and a United Nations information platform to manage space traffic.

2019 also saw the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) update its primary document on space-debris mitigation guidelines, making its compliance requirements stricter. The ISO crafts and promotes international standardization for policy areas including food safety, health care, agriculture, commercial technology and space.

GRAPHICS: Anya Lambert & Anas Albounni

Compliance with ISO standards is generally accepted as industry best practice, and Johnson points out that several nations follow ISO guidelines and either write the standards directly into their national policies or use them as a basis for crafting unique policy.

Developing international guidelines and policies takes time, and Johnson worries that real efforts to protect the space domain will not occur until a major debris-creating event takes place. However, she also highlights the strong industry and multinational consensus that protecting the space environment and focusing on efforts to mitigate the creation of debris should be an international priority.

|  What lies ahead?

“The 1967 OST was made before the era of space commercialization,” Zhao tells KUST Review. “It contains only general principles; there is a need to further clarify the application of these principles in our modern life with a lot of new development. There are loopholes in the current legal regime and an urgent need for the international society to negotiate to come up with some documents guiding new space activities.”

Schrogl also highlighted the need to update and develop space law for the modern space race, but remains optimistic about the future:

“The threat that member states (of the OST) go alone is omnipresent,” he tells KUST Review. “We have cases and cases where we see this on Earth but we have also seen over the last 50 years or so where respect for international law and the rule of law is growing. Wherever countries think ‘I can be first,’ they try and find loopholes or even use brute force, and we have to be realistic about that. But at the same time, if you look at it with a historical perspective, it’s not so bad how, in particular, space law has been applied and respected.”

So what does 21st century space law look like?

For Zhao, expert in intellectual property law, IP is the main concern. He highlights scientific experiments carried out in space where no countries can claim sovereignty and says we’ll need to determine the rules for IP claims for these results. For him, whether the national legal regime would apply to these situations is the big question.

Schrogl doesn’t know what the future holds for space law but recognizes the sheer number of issues to be ironed out:

“Space law has expanded. From the beginning, it was meant to provide an understanding of the status of outer space and the status of the actors in outer space. This it did extremely well: It’s a space for free use and non-appropriation, states are responsible and liable, and private actors can only act if they are authorized by the states. This holds true today. But space law’s extension has to regulate the behavior of these actors. We need provisions for space traffic management to avoid accidents and collisions, for cleaning space debris, and for long-term sustainability.”

Space law isn’t standing still: There’s COPUOS working to develop guidelines and principles for the exploration and use of space resources. The International Institute of Space Law helps international organizations and national institutions cooperate to develop space law, and the International Astronautical Federation leads space advocacy across 75 countries. There are 11 academic journals dedicated to space law and policy.

And while Schrogl admits progress is slow, “we’re building a new dimension of space law.”

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Cleaning up our space

As the race to explore space intensifies, so does the problem of space junk. With millions of pieces of debris orbiting the Earth, scientists are sounding the alarm that the issue poses a serious threat to future space missions.

Earth’s low orbit, 2,000 kilometers or less from the Earth’s surface, is home to the vast majority of space debris. The debris consists of defunct satellites, upper launch stages, fragments from explosions and pieces left over when countries shoot missiles to take down their own satellites. Many pieces of debris are larger than tennis balls, and most no longer serve any functional purpose. Basically, there’s a lot of garbage flying around up there.

And this garbage is flying at astounding speeds.

Imagine you’re driving home from work, traveling 80 kilometers per hour when a small stone flies up, striking your windshield. It makes a loud noise, and later you notice a crack in the windshield. The velocity of both objects — the car and the rock — determines the level of damage.

Now imagine you’re traveling at over 25,000 kilometers per hour, and so is the stone. At this speed, collision with a stone would be catastrophic, but even something tiny can cause serious damage.

European Space Agency astronaut Tim Peak in 2016 noticed a crack in the observation window of the International Space Station. In a press release, Peak described a photo he took of the crack: “I am often asked if the International Space Station is hit by space debris. Yes — this is the chip in one of our cupola windows, glad it is quadruple glazed!”

The damage was caused by a rogue fleck of paint.

There are about 27,000 pieces of debris larger than 10 centimeters being monitored by the U.S. Department of Defense. More than 100 million smaller pieces fly around untracked. Any impact with other spacecraft, satellites or space stations could be devastating and in turn cause more debris, and so on and so on.

IMAGE: NASA, ESA, Shutterstock

The chain reaction, theoretical at this point, is known as Kessler syndrome. Astrophysicist and one-time NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler proposed that at some point there will be so much debris in Earth’s low orbit that it will continue to crash and create more debris, eventually becoming autonomous and unstoppable and making future space travel impossible.

Though Kessler syndrome is an extreme example, it’s not impossible. Moog Professor of Innovation and SUNY Distinguished Professor at the University at Buffalo, John Crassidis, says he believes we will reach this point in this generation.

“I really think that we’ll be in trouble in 50 years or less if we keep putting objects up in space like we are doing now,” he tells KUST Review.

Though 50 years isn’t far off, more imminent risks exist to satellites and other spacecraft in Earth’s low orbit.

Crassidis, who works with NASA and the U.S. Air Force to monitor space debris, says the biggest risk is to humans — specifically to those doing extravehicular activities. “Debris is moving at 17,000 miles per hour. That can go right through a spacesuit, even a very tiny piece of debris,” he says.

CAPTION: Japanese company Astroscale is hoping to inspire a movement of space cleanup IMAGE: NASA

Other risks exist for active satellites in Earth’s low orbit. This may not sound concerning but these satellites allow Earth dwellers to make calls on their iPhones, watch videos on TikTok, participate in Zoom meetings and make millions as YouTubers. So, if these satellites are knocked out by debris traveling over 25,000 kilometers per hour, Gen X, millennials, and well, pretty much everyone, could be in for a trip — not to space — but back in time.

Among other concerns are for the 10 individuals living on active space stations. There are two inhabited space stations in Earth’s low orbit — the International Space Station and China’s Tiangong space station. Space stations are protected by their outer shields from debris up to 1.5 centimeters in diameter, but other than that, it’s either evacuate or duck. Thus far, both have proved successful solutions.

Russia in 2021 launched a rocket at one of its own satellites as a test, creating more than 3,500 pieces of debris and putting those living on the International Space Station at risk. The astronauts were forced to move into their spaceship capsules docked on the station should they need to make a quick get-away. And in October 2022, the International Space Station had to be raised by 0.2 miles to avoid more fragments resulting from this test.

This evasive maneuver — with a price tag of about U.S.$1 million — was effective, but even a collision with a piece of debris between 1 and 10 centimeters in diameter could cause damage costing up to U.S.$2 million to fix. Crassidis says this is only one of more than 20 maneuvers the space station has performed to avoid large pieces of debris.

Though moving the space station is currently a feasible — albeit expensive — solution, experts are concerned that with the increasing volume of debris each year, a safe space environment will cease to exist.

And researchers have discovered that collisions aren’t the only environmental risk factor.

A 2023 study by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration found metallic particles consistent with materials used to build spacecraft within the world’s stratosphere. This is caused when defunct satellites and rocket bits vaporize as they re-enter the Earth’s atmosphere.

BUT WHAT IS THE SOLUTION?

While the United Nations holds guidelines for space-debris mitigation, there is no legislation in place to hold space explorers responsible for their mess. So, it’s basically down to innovation and doing the right thing.

“We can’t even get countries to follow United Nations Guideline Number 4: Avoid intentional destruction and other harmful activities. Our leaders need to start talking with each other. That’s the first step, but not all countries are doing that. We (the Americans), the Europeans and other countries do follow many of the guidelines,” Crassidis says.

CAPTION: Debris orbiting the Earth poses a risk to satellites, astronauts and future space missions IMAGE: Shutterstock

So, while some governments are doing what they can to clean up their mess, start-up businesses are popping up to pick up the pieces. Take Japanese company Astroscale, for example.

Astroscale offers space-debris removal as a service. Space programs or private companies world-wide can hire it to collect debris and drag it into Earth’s atmosphere to burn up. Astroscale plans its first official removal mission to take place in 2025. The company is hoping to inspire a global movement of debris removal.

In the meantime, the European Space Agency has partnered with start-up Clearspace to launch a claw that will grab hold of space junk and pull it back into the atmosphere to burn up. The claw is expected to remove its first piece of debris in 2025.

But that may cause problems, too. The 2023 NOAA study found that the offset contributes to ozone depletion.

Until these projects become regular practice, Crassidis’ research focuses mainly on prevention by “trying to determine the characteristics of debris from unresolved images. These updated models can be used to better predict where the debris is in space, thereby helping to better determine the probability of collision with functioning satellites,” he says.

Crassidis and his colleagues are also working on a plan to recycle space debris but, “This technology is 15 to 20 years away from being practical.”

Crassidis says that one day there will be a practical and affordable solution to space debris.

“What is today’s science fiction is tomorrow’s reality. The best thing we can do is follow the U.N. guidelines, slow the growth of the debris, and then have technology catch up to clean it up,” he tells KUST Review.

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6 innovative ways to store energy

As the world looks to a renewable-energy future, storage becomes a concern because with renewables, supply and demand aren’t always in balance.

Renewable energy sources such as wind and the sun aren’t always “on” when consumers need energy, and excess power that can’t be used immediately is wasted unless it’s stored.

Storing energy can be expensive, however, so some utilities use plants that burn fossil fuels to make up the difference during times of peak demand. Those plants operate most efficiently when at full power, however, and using these plants to redistribute power can lead to more pollution.

Chemical batteries are useful for electric vehicles but they may not be the best option for utility companies. Chemical batteries’ life cycles can also be short. Lithium ion batteries, for example, last about five to 10 years. They’re expensive. And the metals used to make them raise issues of geopolitics and human rights.

Looking at other materials seems to be a good idea.

Here are six innovative materials and methods we might use instead:

PUMP STORAGE WITH WATER

This isn’t a new idea: People have been using pump storage since the early 20th century. Early pump storage used fossil fuels to move water from a lower reservoir to a higher one during off-peak hours, when that energy was cheapest. Then when the energy was needed, gravity returned the water to the lower reservoir, turning turbines as it flowed. Such systems today can substitute renewable energy for power from fossil fuels. This is the most popular method of storing electricity today and accounts for 93 percent of utility-scale energy storage in the United States.

GRAVITY BATTERIES

As with the pump-storage system, this uses renewable energy to raise an object from a lower level to a higher one. But instead of water, it’s a heavy mass that generates gravitational potential energy. When the energy is needed, the mass is slowly dropped. The motor that raised it in the first place switches to generator mode and energy is sent off to the consumer. How much energy is produced and how long it is generated depends on the height and weight of the lift. One company working with the technology, Gravitricity in Scotland, is investigating the use of deep decommissioned mines for gravity energy storage. The company estimates that some 14,000 mines around the world could be repurposed for energy storage.

FLYWHEELS

A flywheel can be as simple as the power system in a child’s friction toy or as complex as NASA’s G2 system for energy storage in a spacecraft. The flywheel is essentially a mechanical battery with a heavy weight that rotates around an axis. Energy gets the wheel spinning. And if it spins fast enough, it can store energy. The limiting factors are friction and how much force the wheel can take before it breaks.

SAND BATTERIES

The sand battery uses sand or a sandlike substance heated to temperatures well above the boiling point of water – about 500 degrees C. Cool air blown through pipes in the storage facility picks up the heat and can be used, for example, to convert water into process steam. The first commercial sand battery in Finland uses about 100 tons of low-grade sand to warm homes, offices and a municipal swimming pool year-round, and its developers say the sand can hold its heat for months.

THERMODYNAMIC STORAGE USING COMPRESSED AIR

This system uses electrical energy to create high-pressure compressed air, which can be released later to drive a turbine generator. Utility-scale versions of these systems are generally located in caverns. A variant of this storage system is underwater compressed air energy storage, which benefits from the constant water pressure and could be useful for coastal locations.

WOOD BATTERIES

About 30 percent of a tree – depending on species – is lignin, the glue that holds its cellulose fibers together. The polymer lignin also contains carbon, which as it turns out is a great material for a battery part called an anode.

Finland’s Stora Enso happens to have lots of trees: It calls itself the one of the largest owners of private forest in the world. And according to the BBC, the company’s engineers say they can extract the lignin they need from waste pulp the company is already producing.

Stora Enso has entered into a partnership with Swedish company Northvolt to create batteries sourced sustainably in Nordic countries. They expect to be in production as early as 2025.

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Making space for women

The UAE is celebrating International Women’s Day a little early this year with news of the first female Emirati astronaut set to graduate from NASA.

Nora Al Matrooshi, NASA class of 2023, will graduate in March 2024 alongside her Emirati counterpart Mohammed Al Mulla, the National reports. The ceremony will take place in Houston, Texas.

Al Matrooshi, an engineer formerly of the National Petroleum Construction Co., was one of two candidates chosen from over 4,000 applicants for the 2021 NASA training program.

When she was initially selected, Al Matrooshi in a media conference said she was inspired to reach for the stars by one of her teachers who would set up a tent in the classroom and ask the students to try to imagine it was a spacecraft en route to the moon.

In 1963, Valentina Tereshkova of Russia became the first woman in space, but the next wasn’t until two decades later.

In 2020, Phys.org reported that only 11.5 percent of the 566 people who have gone to space were women, and the United Nations Space4Women program reports that 20-22 percent of the space workforce is women – virtually unchanged from what it was 30 years ago.

But the flight crews are increasing in female numbers and Al Matrooshi aims to be an inspiration for other young women: “If I can do it, then you can do it too. If no one has done it yet, then you just go ahead and be the first,” she said in a 2021 interview with The National.

This brings the Emirati astronaut count to four as the UAE space program grows and continues to rack up firsts.

CAPTION: International Space Station IMAGE: NASA

The first Emirati astronaut, Hazza al Mansouri, spent eight days aboard the International Space Station in 2022, followed by Sultan Al Neyadi with a six-month stay in 2023 and first Arab space walk.

Al Matrooshi’s graduation coincides with the most recent advancement in the UAE’s space program – a ticket to the moon.

The UAE recently agreed to provide NASA with an airlock for the Gateway lunar station, which will serve as an exchange center for crew and science payloads. The deal comes with UAE access to the station and a lunar mission. The deal comes with UAE access to the station and a lunar mission.

No decisions have been made about which UAE astronauts will be selected for the first UAE lunar mission.

According to NASA, the Lunar Gateway will record its first mission no sooner than 2028.

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In space, no one can hear you flush

Ensuring the accessibility of water on Earth is a priority for science in the coming years to be certain.

But so is making sure it’s available in space.

It isn’t like finding water in space is impossible. The chemical elements that make water – hydrogen and oxygen – are abundant in space.

“NASA science activities have provided a wave of amazing findings related to water in recent years that inspire us to continue investigating our origins and the fascinating possibilities for other worlds, and life, in the universe,” says Ellen Stofan, a chief NASA scientist, on NASA.gov.

NASA astronaut and Expedition 65 Flight Engineer Mark Vande Hei services components on an advanced new toilet installed inside the International Space Station’s Tranquility module. CREDIT: NASA

NASA points to the four giant planets in our solar system – Uranus, Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune – as being likely to contain large amounts of water. There is also evidence that five moons of Jupiter and Saturn contain oceans under their surfaces.

In 2020, NASA announced the discovery of H2O in sunlit areas of the Earth’s moon, suggesting that the water molecule is widely distributed across the lunar surface.

And scientists have discovered a huge cloud of water vapor about 30 billion miles away that contains at least 140 trillion times the amount of water in all of the seas and oceans on Earth.

In fact, all of the water here came from out there as ice piggybacking on the comets and asteroids that plowed into a hot and dry young Earth. That’s right: Water is alien.

We recycle about 90 percent of all water-based liquids on the space station, including urine and sweat.”

– Jessica Meir , astronaur

For privacy, the toilet is located inside of a stall just like in a public restroom on Earth. CREDIT: NASA

But ensuring a steady supply for humans venturing out into space is a bit more complicated right now than steering into a vapor cloud or drilling into a frozen moon. Explorers will have to ensure they bring and manage whatever they need.

“We recycle about 90 percent of all water-based liquids on the space station, including urine and sweat,” says astronaut Jessica Meir on NASA.gov. “What we try to do aboard the space station is mimic elements of Earth’s natural water cycle to reclaim water from the air. And when it comes to our urine on (the International Space Station), today’s coffee is tomorrow’s coffee!”

Part of the liquid-recovery process is accomplished with NASA’s new space toilet: The $23 million Universal Waste Management System launched to the ISS in 2020.

The toilet, designed for male and female astronauts, aids in recycling more urine for tomorrow’s coffee. The water in fecal content is not currently being recycled, but NASA scientists are looking into it.

That could help them do better than their current 90 percent recovery rate. NASA wants to bring that recycling rate to 98 percent before humans board a proposed Mars transport vehicle for missions expected to last two years round-trip. NASA is aiming for the Mars missions to begin in the 2030s.