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We’ve captured carbon. Now what?

Before the industrial revolution the world removed carbon from the air all by itself. With global carbon emissions breaking records in 2022 and potential risks of storing carbon underground, however, companies are getting creative and repurposing captured carbon in unexpected ways.

The Paris Agreement in 2015 had countries all over the world commit to take part in the race to net-zero emissions. Those countries are working toward the agreement’s renewable-energy goals, but more can be done to control greenhouse gases. One solution is carbon capture.

Natural or human-made

Carbon capture is the process of retrieving carbon emissions from the air and storing them. The process can be natural or manmade.

Natural carbon capture and storage is achieved by elements of the planet’s ecosystems. Trees, for example, are an effective carbon-capture and storage mechanism: Their leaves absorb carbon dioxide from the air through photosynthesis. But if trees are cut and burned for firewood — or even if the tree dies naturally — stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere.

The largest source of natural carbon capture is the world’s oceans. The United Nations estimates that the oceans soak up about 25 percent of all greenhouse-gas emissions and 90 percent of the surplus heat those emissions cause.

This natural carbon-capture process is called the carbon cycle. The problem is the world’s ecosystems can’t keep up with the greenhouse gases that are being produced by humans.

Enter man-made carbon capture.

Carbon-capture processes are designed to remove carbon from industrial waste or from the air outside. Carbon-capture plants typically have walls of giant fans, sucking in air. They remove the carbon from the air, convert it to liquid, store it underground or use it to inject into oil fields to simplify oil extraction. But there are challenges with carbon capture.

These large plants require a lot of energy in the form of materials to build the facilities and the energy to run them. Additionally, once the carbon dioxide is stored, there are risks. The carbon dioxide could leak out of the stored areas, polluting water sources and eventually reaching the surface — once again polluting the air.

Reasons for concern

There is also concern that pressure from injecting the carbon underground could cause seismic activity and controversy over whether carbon capture and storage might embolden fossil-fuel use. The 2022 report from the Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis says, “Captured carbon has mostly been used for enhanced oil recovery” and “enhancing oil production is not a climate solution.”

While easing oil removal is the most common use of captured carbon, some companies are getting creative and managing carbon in other unusual ways.

Many large companies purchase carbon offsets to reduce their footprints. But individuals can purchase them as well. One company selling to individuals is Climeworks, a Swiss-based carbon-removal company that captures 900 tons of carbon annually. Buyers can even offer this as a “green gift” in the name of someone else. Climeworks also produces the bubbles for carbonated beverages for such clients as Coca-Cola.

Also getting off the ground is E-Jet fuel from carbon-capture company Twelve. The company says this fuel lowers greenhouse-gas emission of traditional fuels by 80 percent. Twelve entered into a memorandum of understanding with Alaska Air Group and Microsoft to work toward testing the fuel on a commercial flight.

Taking Off

In an announcement of the partnership, Nicholas Flanders, co-founder and CEO of Twelve said, “By producing our drop-in E-Jet fuel from captured CO2, we can rapidly and efficiently close the carbon cycle and allow businesses to sustainably use emissions to power their own business travel.” No date for the testing of the commercial flight has been announced. Air Transport Action Group reports that aviation makes up 12 percent of emissions from all transport sources.

After returning home from a green, commercial flight, weary travelers might do some green laundry with laundry capsules made from captured carbon.

In 2010, Unilever, which produces over 400 household brands such as Omo, Ben and Jerry’s and Dove, began a decades-long commitment to halve its environmental impact by 2030. One of the ingredients used to make foam in Omo (Persil) laundry capsules is fossil fuels. But on World Earth Day in 2021, Unilever launched a limited-edition capsule that used captured carbon instead of fossil fuels in a new process that makes the capsule 82 percent less carbon intensive. Unilever aims to achieve net zero emissions from its product line by 2039.

Even with the volume of removal, storage and creative ways carbon is being repurposed, carbon neutrality remains out of reach. The 2021 Global Status of Carbon Capture and Storage Report estimates that in order to reach mid-century goals, the number of carbon-capture facilities would have to increase by 100 times. There are currently 27.

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Launching medical research

A generation of drugs called monoclonal antibodies, also known as MABs, is altering the landscape of disease treatment by selectively targeting disease-causing agents and kick-starting immune cells. But sending fundamental, engineered proteins into space for further research may reveal ways to make drugs more targeted, concentrated and easier to administer.

MABs make up about one-third of protein-based therapeutics and are most often used to treat cancer and inflammation. They are widely regarded for their ability to target the specific protein of a pathogen and stop it from invading more cells. This means the therapy is tailored to the patient’s disease. The problem, however, is that patients need to get these drugs in large quantities over extended periods of time.

Proteins are too small to study under a microscope, so growing them into crystals lets researchers get a better understanding of their 3D constitution. Their makeup reveals how each protein works and how it contributes to disease growth. Once we understand this, drugs can be developed that mesh with the protein and fight the disease scenarios.

As well as being an important category of therapeutics, proteins are themselves drug targets. Drug design companies need high-resolution protein structures to design suitable drugs.

This is where microgravity comes in.

Earth’s gravity can inhibit the growth and quality of crystals by affecting how the molecules position themselves on the exterior of the crystal. This makes space an ideal environment for this type of research.

AN INVOLVED PROCESS

Dr. David Sheehan, professor of biochemistry in Khalifa University’s department of Chemistry, has been working on a method of crystalizing proteins for 12 years. Now, his proteins are waiting in Japan for a possible February 2024 ride to the International Space Station.

While turning proteins into crystals might seem like a cool magic trick, the process is quite involved. And many of the victories in successful crystallization can be attributed to time, patience and a lot of luck.

CAPTION: David Sheehan, professor of biochemistry-chemistry department, Khalifa University

Sheehan says initially, the protein is purified or separated from anything that might inhibit crystallization, like fatty materials from cells. The pH level is maintained for an optimum growth environment, and salt might be added to increase the ionic strength — or concentration — of the solution.

Other precipitants like polyethylene glycol or organic solvents, which decrease the protein solubility, are added. Then, the conditions are manipulated in a variety of ways, such as adjusting the temperature or exposure to gravity.

The chemical additives and pH combined make up a condition. Most proteins only give crystals in a small number of conditions, so it is necessary to screen thousands of conditions to find the small number that will yield usable crystals.

– Dr. David Sheehan, professor of biochemistry-Chemistry department, Khalifa University

And then it’s a waiting game — crystals might form in a week, a year or not at all.

Sheehan says researchers spend most of their time watching and hoping for a crystal, but most won’t see it: “When and if a crystal appears, then you’ve got a project.”

In his case, the crystals responded well to the addition of nanoparticles. While most of these types of experiments might typically result in one or two crystals from thousands, Sheehan’s team grew 15 crystals out of a panel of 16 proteins studied.

“We found one formulation that worked better than the others. So, then we used that nanoparticle with about 200 conditions,” he tells KUST Review.

This is unheard of, he says. And he knew they were on to something significant.

CAPTION: Crystals of protein Furin grown on Earth IMAGE: Khalifa University

When the UAE space program was asked to send protein samples to Japan for testing and a possible spot on the 2024 mission to the International Space Station, Sheehan believed his team had a good shot at it. The crystals are in Japan for final testing.

JOURNEY TO SPACE

The project has a long history.

Sheehan grew his first nanoparticle-doped protein crystal over a decade ago, the result of an idea that had been brewing, a fridge full of available proteins, a student looking for a project and a friend with access to a synchrotron, a machine that uses electricity to create intense X-ray beams to study matter’s chemical and structural properties.

The student experimented with two nanoparticles, different from the ones they used on the recent project: “The crystals grew very quickly and in the presence of a nanoparticle, they were larger, they grew faster, and they really grew. And that worked with both nanoparticles,” he says.

The stars (or crystals rather) aligned, and Sheehan and his student were soon transporting proteins to Dublin to a crystallographer friend who agreed to take them to the Paris synchrotron.

A synchrotron is about the size of a football stadium and is an ideal way to determine the three-dimensional atomic structure of a protein. It involves the crystallization of the protein and an in-depth analysis using a method called X-ray diffraction, Sheehan says.

Here, an X-ray beam is sent through the crystal. This interacts with the atoms in the crystal’s network, which scatter, creating a pattern. The pattern is recorded, and multiple images are created by rotating the protein, collecting further patterns and creating a map. The data is analyzed and a 3D structure is created.

FOCUS ON PROTEINS

But why are we so focused on proteins? Why not other molecules?

Proteins are the worker bees of a cell. They play an essential role in most biological systems and are responsible for most cellular functions. They are responsible for the shape, the interior design, production, cleanup, general upkeep and communication of cells. This makes them of great interest for targeted drug development, Sheehan says.

There are more than 130 protein-based therapeutics on the market, and the next step is to make them even better.

Current drugs for diseases like cancer, for example, require patients to take them for lengthy periods. Patients might sit in a clinic, hooked up to an IV for hours at a time, to ensure they get the right concentration of treatment. These treatments can go on for months or years. Imagine if they could receive a simple injection in a doctor’s office. This is something pharmaceutical giant Merck is working on.

And this type of drug development is dependent on research like that of Sheehan and his team.

CAPTION: Structure of Furin obtained by Cryo-EM of crystals IMAGE: Khalifa University

For example furin, the protein in Japan at present, is a potential antiviral drug target for treating COVID-19.

Aside from the contributions to science, fighting disease and improving patient care, it could also mean a commercial venture.

“This could be very big,” Sheehan says. “I can see two options for commercialization, one of which is to market this as a crystallization screen and the other a start-up offering this as a service.”

With the team’s current success rate of more than 90 percent, it’s promising.

Sheehan and his researcher Salma Sultana Syed have now patented their screen in the USA and UAE with a patent in Europe pending. They are exploring creating a start-up to be called ProScreenix.

According to Allied Market Research, the protein therapeutics global market value is expected to reach U.S.$566.6 billion by 2030, up from U.S.$283.64 billion in 2020.

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History of the mRNA vaccine

Nearly every function in the human body is carried out by proteins. Cells are constantly manufacturing them using single-strand messenger RNA, which is made from a DNA template. Each strand of mRNA holds the information on how to make one type of protein. The cell reads the mRNA, follows the instructions and makes a protein.

mRNA is a recipe book for the body’s cells. The idea? Make precise edits to the recipe, inject people with it, sit back and watch the body make all the proteins you need.

 IMAGE: Anas Al Bounni-KUST Review

Viruses come in different shapes and sizes. Some are DNA viruses, which contain DNA that integrates with the host DNA in certain cells, using that cell’s replication mechanism to multiply. These viruses can activate cancer genes in the host — the human papillomavirus (HPV) is known to cause cervical cancer, for example.

RNA viruses carry RNA and do not integrate that RNA into a host’s DNA. Instead, the RNA is directed to the host ribosomes in cells, with the ribosomes replicating the virus. These viruses do not interact with host DNA.

Once inside the body, the cell reads the vaccine mRNA and begins to make harmless spike proteins of its own. From there, the body recognizes them as a foreign threat and launches an immune response, teaching itself to respond to spike proteins. Should the actual coronavirus come knocking, your cells now know what to do.

The main drawback to mRNA vaccines? The mRNA breaks down very easily. It needs to be delivered inside a protective fatty barrier and kept cold.

mRNA vaccines are a groundbreaking way to elicit an immune response and their real impact is just beginning. Their applications don’t stop at COVID-19; we might be able to figure out the recipe for a cancer or HIV vaccine.

mRNA VACCINE HISTORY

1961-mRNA discovered.

1963-Interferon induction by mRNA discovered.

1965-First liposomes produced.

1969-First proteins produced from isolated mRNA in lab.

1971-Liposomes first used for drug delivery.

1974-Liposomes first used for vaccine delivery.

1978-First liposome-wrapped mRNA delivery to cells.

1984-mRNA synthesized in lab.

1989-First time synthetic mRNA in liposomes is delivered to human cells.

1992-mRNA tested as a treatment in rats.

1993-First mRNA vaccines tested for influenza in mice.

1995-mRNA tested as cancer vaccine in mice.

2005-Discovery that modified RNA evades immune detection.

2013-First clinical trial of mRNA vaccine for infectious disease (rabies).

2020-First mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccine approved for emergency use.

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Humanoid robots reach new depths

Humanoid robots are used in industries from medicine, law enforcement and hospitality, to maintenance and disaster relief. But Stanford University has developed a deep-sea humanoid robot that is diving in the robotics pool at Khalifa University with an end goal of exploring marine robotics for sustainable ocean ecosystems.

The OceanOneK robot — designed and built by Oussama Khatib and his Stanford team — has been five years in the making and made its Abu Dhabi debut tasked with retrieving plastic waste from the Khalifa University marine robotics pool.

But the team has bigger plans for OceanOneK

Having completed testing in the pool at Stanford on the trifecta of robotic function integration — navigation, bimanual manipulation (reciprocal hand movements needing disparity between hand actions), vision and body-control — it was time to take OceanOneK out to sea.

The robot performed several dives around the Mediterranean, reaching close to 1,000 meters — a record depth — exploring sunken vessels and retrieving artifacts.

As team members operated the robot through its haptic interface (communication system), they were able to feel what the robot was touching.

“It was pretty amazing feeling something that no other human could touch. While it was a (haptically mediated experience), it was still an amazing connection,” says Adrian Piedra, a Ph.D. student in Khatib’s Stanford lab.

CAPTION: Stanford team shares in-field experience with OceanOneK IMAGE: Khalifa University

One of the vessels was Le Francesco Crispi, an Italian steamship torpedoed by the British while enroute from Italy to France in 1943. Delicate white coral has formed on the wreck, Khatib says, that the dive’s marine biologists were very excited to touch and then collect as samples. Also present and observed were iron-eating bacteria.

The robot was able to perform tasks for archaeology and for marine biology.

– Oussama Khatib

This is why a humanoid robot was essential for this project, adds Wesley Guo, another of the project’s Stanford Ph.D. students. “The way we control the robot is direct, as this helps the operator relate intuitively. The easiest way to do this is to have the body at a scale and shape similar to the human form. We also wanted it to appear non-threatening, as it will work in collaboration with human divers at different sites.”

A typical recreational diver can safely descend to about 30 meters – anything deeper requires specialized training and equipment. At 30 meters the pressure is approximately four times that at the surface. What happens to the human body beneath these depths depends on the person’s overall health and fitness levels. At 1,000 meters, the robot experiences 100 times the atmospheric pressure, team leader Khatib explains.

So, such robots are the key to deep-water exploration. And with more autonomy comes more skill sets.

Khatib says autonomy of a robot in the water is challenging, hence the haptic interface back to a human. But the goal is to diminish the need for human intervention as much as possible.

These deep-water diving robots, called remotely operated vehicles, or ROVs, are a new type of robot that can collect a lot of image data. “Operations under water require arms, hands and coordination between them, and that is what we’ve brought here with the OceanOne concept,” Khatib says.

“The interface we use goes beyond the visual – it delivers tactile-touch sensing using a haptic device. A haptic device allows humans to touch and feel what the robot is interacting with and permits one to guide the robot while it is executing delicate tasks. It acts as an avatar,” Khatib tells KUST Review.

“It interprets and affects movement and grasp request, maintains attitude and position for the human reference, and passes sensory information back to the human,” he says.

Human movement is just one of the considerations when building a robot like OceanOneK. The working environment must also be factored in. In this case that includes water and how it behaves.

Currents, for example, disrupt the intended movement, and this is where Khalifa University comes in.

The robotics pool at Khalifa University can simulate such environments, but under controllable conditions.

“Here, we can control the amount and direction of currents, we can control the waves, we can control those interactions in an ocean-like environment,” says Khatib.  “This is perfect for training and learning.”

CAPTION: Ku Robotics Pool IMAGE: Khalifa University

The Khalifa University robotics team will also work toward adding to the tasks the robot’s hands can carry out on their own.

“Full autonomy (without human intervention) will be the ultimate target; this, however, is challenging, and in the near-term humans will work with the robot to carry out tasks such as underwater valve-turning and plug-insertion,

Our objective is to increase the robot’s degree of autonomy while reducing the extent of human intervention.

– Lakmal Seneviratne, director of the Center for Autonomous Robot Systems and professor of mechanical engineering at Khalifa University

Stanford’s Khatib says these sensory-mechanical systems are also used out of the water in industries such as medicine, where a physician may interact through a haptic interface when not able to be present in the ICU. Similarly, the systems could be used for robots working on electrical grates or offshore platforms.

“In many of these applications we aim to distance humans from danger while connecting their skills to the task that must be carried out in that environment,” Khatib says.

CAPTION: Stanford and Khalifa University robotics collaboration IMAGE: Khalifa University

“There is a lot of work needed before taking these robots into the field, and Khalifa University offers a unique environment for this preparatory marine robotic study,” Khatib says. “We are also collaborating in other ways,” including curriculum development and teaching, as well as through research focus groups and workshops,” he adds.

“We look forward to more interaction with the researchers, faculty and students here.”

Among future joint projects: Khalifa University KUCARS and Stanford University Robotics Lab have recently established a collaboration to research and develop marine robotics systems for sustainable marine ecosystem applications, including ocean monitoring and ocean cleaning.

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Deciphering the potential of 3D
printed structures

According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau, the average house requires a span of seven months to materialize. This includes a cascade of developmental stages: the foundation is laid, the framing is erected, insulation is packed, drywall is hung, the plumbing installed, and the electrical grid established. This calls for a broad array of experts. Now, the construction industry is pivoting toward adopting 3D printing technologies to respond more nimbly, sustainably and affordably to the dynamic demands of modern homebuyers.

Japan, for example, has demonstrated the speed, building a house in 24 hours. While the resulting build serves as an office space now, its swift construction proves its potential for future home-building on a time crunch. Japan further showcased this by fabricating a spacious villa in 45 days.

Time may be money and this axiom resonates well in the world of 3D printed structures. Data from 3D print technology company, COBOD, suggests an economic advantage, with the cost of 3D homes approximately 45 percent lower than traditional construction methods. Personalization is also an option.

3D printers for home construction are essentially giant robots, capable of rendering virtually any design specifications a homeowner might dream up. Want a home shaped like a sphere? With 3D printing, such whimsical abodes could be actualized. Plus, these printed homes come with integrated reinforcement, which means no precast or additional reinforcements are required, making it a greener option.

In 2022, ICON, construction tech development company, and the Lennar Corporation, one of the leading home building companies in the U.S., announced a plan to 3D print an entire neighborhood of 100 homes. These solar-powered homes, ranging in size from 1,524 to 2112 square feet, offer a vision of a sustainable future community.

Projects like these pave the way for solving global issues, from the pervasive shortage of housing and scarcity of skilled labor, to the rehabilitation of regions hit by natural disasters. Swift and cost-effective structures could offer near-immediate shelter to communities affected by natural disasters or to the ubiquitous problem of homelessness. A 2022 report from Urbanet, highlights that over 1.8 million people globally lack adequate housing.

“There are far too many homeless people. Working-class people can’t afford basic housing in regular old American cities. Construction’s too wasteful. Houses aren’t energy-efficient enough. At the suburb scale, it’s dystopian, almost, what we’re getting, right? We’re supposed to be the most advanced version of humanity that’s ever existed and we can’t even meet this basic need properly,” Jason Ballard, CEO of ICON told The New Yorker.

The scope of 3D printing extends beyond the residential. As the 3D home-building market grows, other regions are exploring 3D printed structures for office buildings, bus stops and religious centers.

In 2020, the UAE was awarded the Guinness World Record for the first 3D-printed commercial building which served as the headquarters for the Dubai Future Foundation. After a swift 17-day print, followed by interior outfitting, it stands as a testament to rapid, efficient construction, offering up to 60 percent less waste.

The UAE is also home to the world’s largest 3D-printed building and plans to inaugurate the first 3D-printed, fully-functioning mosque by 2025.