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Cleaning up our space

As the race to explore space intensifies, so does the problem of space junk. With millions of pieces of debris orbiting the Earth, scientists are sounding the alarm that the issue poses a serious threat to future space missions.

Earth’s low orbit, 2,000 kilometers or less from the Earth’s surface, is home to the vast majority of space debris. The debris consists of defunct satellites, upper launch stages, fragments from explosions and pieces left over when countries shoot missiles to take down their own satellites. Many pieces of debris are larger than tennis balls, and most no longer serve any functional purpose. Basically, there’s a lot of garbage flying around up there.

And this garbage is flying at astounding speeds.

Imagine you’re driving home from work, traveling 80 kilometers per hour when a small stone flies up, striking your windshield. It makes a loud noise, and later you notice a crack in the windshield. The velocity of both objects — the car and the rock — determines the level of damage.

Now imagine you’re traveling at over 25,000 kilometers per hour, and so is the stone. At this speed, collision with a stone would be catastrophic, but even something tiny can cause serious damage.

European Space Agency astronaut Tim Peak in 2016 noticed a crack in the observation window of the International Space Station. In a press release, Peak described a photo he took of the crack: “I am often asked if the International Space Station is hit by space debris. Yes — this is the chip in one of our cupola windows, glad it is quadruple glazed!”

The damage was caused by a rogue fleck of paint.

There are about 27,000 pieces of debris larger than 10 centimeters being monitored by the U.S. Department of Defense. More than 100 million smaller pieces fly around untracked. Any impact with other spacecraft, satellites or space stations could be devastating and in turn cause more debris, and so on and so on.

IMAGE: NASA, ESA, Shutterstock

The chain reaction, theoretical at this point, is known as Kessler syndrome. Astrophysicist and one-time NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler proposed that at some point there will be so much debris in Earth’s low orbit that it will continue to crash and create more debris, eventually becoming autonomous and unstoppable and making future space travel impossible.

Though Kessler syndrome is an extreme example, it’s not impossible. Moog Professor of Innovation and SUNY Distinguished Professor at the University at Buffalo, John Crassidis, says he believes we will reach this point in this generation.

“I really think that we’ll be in trouble in 50 years or less if we keep putting objects up in space like we are doing now,” he tells KUST Review.

Though 50 years isn’t far off, more imminent risks exist to satellites and other spacecraft in Earth’s low orbit.

Crassidis, who works with NASA and the U.S. Air Force to monitor space debris, says the biggest risk is to humans — specifically to those doing extravehicular activities. “Debris is moving at 17,000 miles per hour. That can go right through a spacesuit, even a very tiny piece of debris,” he says.

CAPTION: Japanese company Astroscale is hoping to inspire a movement of space cleanup IMAGE: NASA

Other risks exist for active satellites in Earth’s low orbit. This may not sound concerning but these satellites allow Earth dwellers to make calls on their iPhones, watch videos on TikTok, participate in Zoom meetings and make millions as YouTubers. So, if these satellites are knocked out by debris traveling over 25,000 kilometers per hour, Gen X, millennials, and well, pretty much everyone, could be in for a trip — not to space — but back in time.

Among other concerns are for the 10 individuals living on active space stations. There are two inhabited space stations in Earth’s low orbit — the International Space Station and China’s Tiangong space station. Space stations are protected by their outer shields from debris up to 1.5 centimeters in diameter, but other than that, it’s either evacuate or duck. Thus far, both have proved successful solutions.

Russia in 2021 launched a rocket at one of its own satellites as a test, creating more than 3,500 pieces of debris and putting those living on the International Space Station at risk. The astronauts were forced to move into their spaceship capsules docked on the station should they need to make a quick get-away. And in October 2022, the International Space Station had to be raised by 0.2 miles to avoid more fragments resulting from this test.

This evasive maneuver — with a price tag of about U.S.$1 million — was effective, but even a collision with a piece of debris between 1 and 10 centimeters in diameter could cause damage costing up to U.S.$2 million to fix. Crassidis says this is only one of more than 20 maneuvers the space station has performed to avoid large pieces of debris.

Though moving the space station is currently a feasible — albeit expensive — solution, experts are concerned that with the increasing volume of debris each year, a safe space environment will cease to exist.

And researchers have discovered that collisions aren’t the only environmental risk factor.

A 2023 study by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration found metallic particles consistent with materials used to build spacecraft within the world’s stratosphere. This is caused when defunct satellites and rocket bits vaporize as they re-enter the Earth’s atmosphere.

BUT WHAT IS THE SOLUTION?

While the United Nations holds guidelines for space-debris mitigation, there is no legislation in place to hold space explorers responsible for their mess. So, it’s basically down to innovation and doing the right thing.

“We can’t even get countries to follow United Nations Guideline Number 4: Avoid intentional destruction and other harmful activities. Our leaders need to start talking with each other. That’s the first step, but not all countries are doing that. We (the Americans), the Europeans and other countries do follow many of the guidelines,” Crassidis says.

CAPTION: Debris orbiting the Earth poses a risk to satellites, astronauts and future space missions IMAGE: Shutterstock

So, while some governments are doing what they can to clean up their mess, start-up businesses are popping up to pick up the pieces. Take Japanese company Astroscale, for example.

Astroscale offers space-debris removal as a service. Space programs or private companies world-wide can hire it to collect debris and drag it into Earth’s atmosphere to burn up. Astroscale plans its first official removal mission to take place in 2025. The company is hoping to inspire a global movement of debris removal.

In the meantime, the European Space Agency has partnered with start-up Clearspace to launch a claw that will grab hold of space junk and pull it back into the atmosphere to burn up. The claw is expected to remove its first piece of debris in 2025.

But that may cause problems, too. The 2023 NOAA study found that the offset contributes to ozone depletion.

Until these projects become regular practice, Crassidis’ research focuses mainly on prevention by “trying to determine the characteristics of debris from unresolved images. These updated models can be used to better predict where the debris is in space, thereby helping to better determine the probability of collision with functioning satellites,” he says.

Crassidis and his colleagues are also working on a plan to recycle space debris but, “This technology is 15 to 20 years away from being practical.”

Crassidis says that one day there will be a practical and affordable solution to space debris.

“What is today’s science fiction is tomorrow’s reality. The best thing we can do is follow the U.N. guidelines, slow the growth of the debris, and then have technology catch up to clean it up,” he tells KUST Review.

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Brewing strength by transforming
coffee-grounds waste

With 2.25 billion cups of coffee consumed daily around the globe, many companies, cafes and consumers have switched to recyclable or reusable cups and lids to reduce waste. But the grounds left over make their mark on the environment too, and researchers are getting creative with how to recycle them.

Coffee grounds are fully biodegradable, yet up to 75 percent find their way to landfills, where it takes up to three months for them to start breaking down. And even though coffee grounds are biodegradable, the breakdown process releases methane gas that has a greenhouse effect 28 times greater than carbon dioxide.

But what if the ground waste from your java helped secure the foundation of the building you’re sipping it in? This is a possibility thanks to a team of researchers at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology in Australia, which has found a way to use processed coffee grounds in concrete and boost its strength by up to 30 percent.

The key: converting it to biochar.

Biochar is a residue similar to charcoal originating from natural sources like plants and trees. It is created when biomass — any biological material — is burned in the absence of oxygen, typically at high temperatures ranging from 500 to 800 degrees Celsius — a process called pyrolysis.

CAPTION: Samples of unroasted coffee beans, roasted coffee beans, spent ground coffee and the team’s coffee biochar. IMAGE: Carelle Mulawa-Richards, RMIT University

The process the team is using, however, requires lower temperatures than usual, burning at a more energy-conscious 350 degrees Celsius.

We use small-scale equipment and two hours of pyrolysis was sufficient, but the time can vary based on the size of the pyrolysis unit.

– Dr. Shannon Kilmartin-Lynch, co-lead on the study.

The process from plant material to biochar prevents carbon dioxide from being released and transforms the makeup to one that is stable, permeable and rich in carbon. It is typically used in agriculture to increase crop growth.

Previous attempts to add biochar to strengthen concrete have been unsuccessful, able to add only 3 percent of the biochar and ultimately resulting in a weakened concrete. But the Melbourne team’s method with coffee waste proves to have substantial sustainability implications for the coffee and construction industries.

“There are multiple materials available in the market that can contribute to the improvement of concrete strength, but the key highlight of this research is that a waste material that was ending up in landfills and contributing to high greenhouse-gas emissions can be transformed into a high-value product for strengthening concrete,” Kilmartin-Lynch tells KUST Review.

So, they’ve reduced the waste and burning temperature, and it’s likely to be cheaper than using traditional concrete.

“We (the team) don’t see any implications that can hinder its field applications or commercial use. The (about) 30 percent increase in strength can be leveraged to cut down the required cement content, which is produced at approximately 1,450 degrees Celsius,” Kilmartin-Lynch says.

CAPTION: : RMIT researchers Professor Kevin Zhang, Professor Jie Li, Dr. Rajeev Roychand, Dr. Shannon Kilmartin-Lynch and Dr. Mohammad Saberian in the RMIT Microscopy and Microanalysis Facility, where they analyzed the structure of their coffee concrete (pictured left to right) IMAGE: Will Wright, RMIT University

He spends much of his time working toward waste solutions and seems to enjoy stuffing waste into concrete instead of the landfill. To date he has experimented with masks, medical gowns, gloves, tires and food waste. Success from these studies has powered the group to “look at further waste to add into concrete to achieve a circular economy within the concrete industry.”

The team sees the project’s success as two-fold: an absolute solution to the problem of coffee-ground waste — totally eliminating it from landfills — and a valuable resource for the construction industry.

Let’s discuss over a guilt-free coffee.

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Seeing space in 2D

“Space exploration is a material-science saga, because independent of the electronics and so forth, materials are the enabling technology for the challenges that exist in space.”

That’s according to Carlo Iorio, director of the Center for Research and Engineering in Space Technologies at the University of Brussels. And the game-changers he’s most excited about: graphene and other 2D materials. “2D materials can be used and embedded for solving (many) different problems,” he tells the KUST Review.

Listen to the Deep Dive

IMAGE: Anas Al Bounni/KUST Review

Graphene might be the granddaddy of 2D materials, but it is relatively new, discovered in 2004, winning Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov a Nobel Prize in 2010 for its isolation. The material is a single layer of carbon atoms in a hexagonal pattern. It is tough, flexible, light and offers high resistance.

“The properties of graphene are exceptional in many ways,” says Yarjan Abdul Samad, who earned his Ph.D. at Khalifa University, studied the properties of 2D materials as a postdoc at Cambridge University, and has recently returned to Khalifa as an assistant professor in aerospace engineering.

Samad says the discovery of graphene launched a tidal wave of 2D material research: “There are thousands of new 2D materials now under investigation because of the discovery of graphene. It’s as if a new periodic table has erupted,” he says.

“Every property can be utilized for an application not possible for traditional materials. That keeps me intrigued. For me, especially when I look at the challenges of space, whether it’s thermal management or radiation protection or long journeys, there are so many issues that need unconventional solutions. 2D materials are versatile and tunable to solve many problems,” Samad says.

Here’s a look at some of the issues of space travel and settlement Iorio and Samad say 2D materials might address:

Radiation protection

Space radiation is often considered the top limiting factor of long-term space travel, with astronauts likely facing risks of cardiovascular and degenerative disease and cancer.

“I may be biased on this, but top of the list (of 2D applications) is radiation protection. Everyone is concerned about radiation and there have been many radiation-related incidents. So, how can we protect against radiation?” Samad asks. “It’s a very complex phenomenon, and conventional materials won’t work against galactic cosmic radiation. We need to come up with an approach where we can have selective protection.”

Graphene and hybrid solutions might be the answer, he suggests.

Space radiation is also on the top of Iorio’s list of 2D applications for space – “first and foremost,” he says.

Space shields will allow human exploration over long distances, he says. “At present it’s fairly challenging to settle on Mars.”

Samad worked with the UAE’s Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Center on the Rashid Rover project that was presumed lost when its lander apparently crashed in April 2023.

IMAGE: Anas Al Bounni/KUST Review

But plans are underway for Rashid 2, and Samad says studying radiation’s effects on 2D materials is under discussion. “(This) is one of the most pressing challenges, in my opinion,” he says.

Suits and habitats

Advanced materials are required for making temperature-resistant suits and structures for people to use on Mars or the moon, Iorio says. 2D material molybdenum disulfide will play a role in this specific challenge, he adds. 2D materials could also be useful in other construction applications.

Khalifa University is exploring rubber-based components with graphene to not only withstand the extreme temperatures but help the infrastructure sustain moonquakes, Iorio notes. “If it’s rigid (the structure) will break. Imagine if the cracks allowed the O2 out.”

Transporting materials from Earth into space is expensive. But 2D materials are light. And Samad sees potential for them to turn matter found on the moon or other worlds into building blocks for settlements. “There could be composites or hybrid materials,” he says. “There are many approaches that can be taken.”

IMAGE: Anas Al Bounni/KUST Review

And once the habitat is built, keeping it a healthy environment for human residents could also fall on 2D materials.

“Graphene and graphene oxide can play a role in materials that can prevent the spread of bacteria and foreign biological elements,” Iorio says. “Imagine in a sealed human base if an epidemic is spread. We’re at the level of a sci-fi scenario.”

Thermal regulation

“How can we stand the lunar nights and what kinds of materials can help with that?” Samad asks.

2D materials show promise: Not only can they resist the extreme temperatures of space, they are excellent candidates to transfer the heat from, for example, a sun-facing side of a craft to the side facing away, where the temperatures could vary by 200 Celsius. And because 2D materials are, well, 2D, they require little space, freeing up room for bigger habitats.

“In space you have a lot of heat that is lost. So (2D) materials like MXenes have been used because they have a low infrared signature,” Iorio says.

Propulsion systems

“Another application is the propulsion system for a rocket. 2D materials can easily be functionalized,” Iorio says.One possibility: sails made from graphene membranes powered by light from the sun or lasers, freeing spacecraft to travel farther and longer without having to carry fuel on board. The craft would also be lighter, nimbler and easier to launch. The European Space Agency says graphene has passed initial tests that show it is a viable candidate.

IMAGE: Anas Al Bounni/KUST Review

Earthside applications

What we learn from our space exploration attempts can be quite useful for us at home too, here on Earth. The problems graphene and other 2D materials solve in space can easily be transferred to Earthbound issues, Iorio says. “The problem of scarcity that we solve in space will be used to solve the problem of rising scarcity anywhere,” he says.

Filters and membranes developed for recycling water on a moon base, for example, can help conserve resources on Earth.

“The technology that we develop for space is capable of exploiting every single drop of water, which is the same goal of a sustainable economy,” Iorio says. “There is also a scarcity of power. That means that the concepts we develop for space are to use the least energy. Regardless of how far we get in space, this will possibly be used on the ground to reduce energy consumption.”

Samad sees advances in radiation protection eventually protecting data centers on Earth whose systems are vulnerable to cosmic radiation. Additionally, thermal management in spacecraft could eventually improve technology for trains and transportation in general.

“In the Emirates there is a growing interest in sustainability,” Iorio says. “Despite the luxury of the lifestyle, there is more attention to sustainability, reducing the carbon footprint and so forth. I have been in developing countries but one of the things that strictly relates space exploration with sustainable development is they share the need to tackle the scarcity of resources.”

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Lifting off

In 2021, the UAE’s Hope probe arrived on Mars, just one of many missions launched by governments and private businesses in recent years looking to increase our understanding of our solar system and beyond. With all of this interest in space exploration, we asked our experts: What should be our first priority? Here’s what they said.

WORKING TOGETHER BENEFITS ALL OF EARTH’S PEOPLE

Hamad Al Marzooqi

Hamad Al Marzooqi was the project manager for the Emirates Lunar Mission and oversaw the computer and the imaging systems of the Rashid rover.

Space exploration has always been human-centric in nature. It has been the case in the past, it is what fuels the current space-exploration program, and it will continue to be in the future.

There were different drivers of space-exploration programs including political, economic and national defense in the past, and they will continue to be.

However, such drivers come and go, and what remains is the curiosity in all of us to explore the unknown and expand our knowledge.

What distinguishes us as humans is our persistence in asking questions from our childhood until adulthood, and such questions are the drivers of all scientific space-exploration programs.

Our ancestors looked at the moon, planets and the stars with awe and inspiration. Today, through our persistence in asking questions, we have become space explorers by sending spacecraft and rovers to the moon, Mars and other planets, eventually reaching the edge of our solar system.

Soon, we will be a space-faring species, and we will create our permanent presence on the moon and Mars.

The “we” in the previous statements is not privileged to a nation, country, political region, ethnicity or religion. It includes all humans living on Planet Earth, and that is what should be the first priority in space exploration.

CAPTION: The UAE’s Sultan Al-Neyadi looks on as Tom Marshburn signs on for the first day of exams at Star City, Russia. IMAGE: NASA

Space exploration is a challenging task, and it will not be feasible without working together as one species through international collaboration.

The International Space Station sets an excellent example of what can be achieved by setting our differences aside and working together. We need to take this example further and expand our international-collaboration efforts in future space-exploration programs.

We need to take advantage of the substantial advancements that are being made through different space programs and find solutions that are human-centric to improve the livelihood of humans living on this planet through technologies, knowledge, education and empowerment of underdeveloped and developing nations.

Our international space-exploration program should focus on advancing human knowledge, finding solutions for existing problems (global warming, inequality, poverty and global health system) and providing a brighter future for the next generation on Earth and other planets.

AVOIDING THE FATE OF THE DINOSAURS

Ettore Perozzi

Ettore Perozzi is senior scientist at the Italian Space Agency (ASI) with a long-standing expertise in celestial mechanics, planetary science, space flight dynamics, education and public outreach. Asteroid (10027) bears his name. Read more›››

The long and winding roads that connect the neighborhood of the Earth to the outer regions of the solar system (and beyond) are well known in celestial mechanics. It is also well established that asteroids and comets, often following chaotic orbital paths, are key to understanding the early phases of planetary formation – where we all come from.

Their dynamical mobility – leading to impacting the planets, falling into the sun or escaping to interstellar space – and their diversity in physical properties make them extremely interesting for planetary science as well as threatening objects in case of collision. They also present an opportunity for extraterrestrial mining.

Therefore, exploring asteroids and comets allows us to address at once three fundamental issues: unveiling the origin and evolution of the solar system, opening a potential new market for commercial space applications and providing vital information for civil protection.

Knowing the chemical composition and internal structure of a small celestial body en route to colliding with the Earth would allow us to develop a robust and reliable deflection strategy, thus helping humans avoid the fate of the dinosaurs.

CAPTION: Knowing more about small celestial bodies could help us deflect them. IMAGE: NASA, Freepik, Shutterstock

When the body poses no danger, its pristine composition could provide precious reservoirs of extraterrestrial resources to compensate for the feared lack of key elemental abundances on our planet.

To date many successful space missions (Giotto, NEAR, Dawn, Rosetta, Hayabusa 2, Dart/LICIAcube, to name a few) have reached asteroids and comets. More are to come.

But in addition to the previous points, these celestial bodies represent ideal locations for the in-situ production of fuel and basic consumables, thus enabling routine long-range space exploration and, in the long run, sustaining the much-awaited human expansion in the solar system.

EXPLORING NEAR EARTH ORBITS WILL AFFECT LIFE ON EARTH

Anton B. Ivanov

Anton B. Ivanov is executive director for Beyond Space Exploration at the Technology Innovation Institute in Abu Dhabi, UAE.

We can distinguish two important priorities for the future in space exploration: Near Earth orbits (LEO, MEO and GEO) and study of the solar system.

Safe exploration of near Earth orbits (NEO) is important for a couple of reasons. These orbits are home to Earth observation communication and GNSS satellites. These assets play crucial roles in our everyday life, even though we don’t notice their impact.

In the recent decade, we are seeing a big push toward creating large constellations, which will enable new applications, yet popular orbits will become very congested.

The number of active satellites and debris in orbit is rapidly increasing. This presents a significant safety risk to both human and robotic missions in LEO, and proper measures must be taken to mitigate these risks.

Exploration of the solar system, particularly Mars and the moon, is important for a number of reasons.

CAPTION: NASA IMAGE: The Jupiter spacecraft captured this image of Jupiter’s swirling clouds. This sort of exploration will continue to help humans understand more about the universe.

Many governments and private companies are investing in missions to the moon, Mars and asteroid belt. In addition to technology advancement, we learn about the history of the solar system.

In conjunction with the growing number of discovered exoplanets, we can better understand whether life, as we know it, can exist outside the solar system.

Exploration of Mars and the moon can also serve as a stepping stone for human exploration of deeper space and inspire technologies that will find their place here on Earth.

Humanity has a natural curiosity to explore new places. Mars and the moon present great interest for establishing permanent future settlements.

It is unlikely that these settlements will solve problems, such as overpopulation and climate change. However, they will have a positive impact on human culture and society, promoting a sense of wonder and awe, fostering international cooperation and inspiring innovation.

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Eyes on the skies

Her Excellency Sarah Al Amiri chairs the UAE Space Agency and is minister of state for Public Education and Future Technology. She recently answered KUST Review’s questions about how diversity strengthens her team, why a thriving space program benefits the nation and its people and more.

QUESTION: The UAE Space Agency is unusual in the tech industry for having a high percentage (50 percent) of female employees. The Mars Hope mission team you led was 80 percent women. How have you encouraged female participation and other forms of diversity in the workforce? Have you seen any positive effects on the work?

ANSWER: I’m immensely proud of the job we’ve done as an agency in removing barriers to entry for team members regardless of their age, nationality, gender or beliefs.

Since my childhood, I’ve always been very much deaf to challenges pertaining to gender, and this remains very much the case today. For me, it is less a question of gender and much more one of diversity.

The key to scientific achievement is to begin with interesting questions, and the driver of interesting questions is genuine variance in thought, perspective and experience – different people, from different backgrounds, with different ways of thinking. This has been integral to our achievements in recent years.

CAPTION: Sarah Al Amiri

Q: How have the UAE’s space endeavors benefitted the country’s economy?

A: We have built the space sector directly into our nation’s economy and its plans for future growth. By fostering an environment which pushes the boundaries of technology and science in space, we can unlock the enormous economic potential of the sector.

From multinational businesses to start-ups to space entrepreneurs, we feel the UAE – through our technology, experience and capabilities – is the ideal place for private space companies. For us, as an agency, to keep innovating and progressing, it’s essential that we have a close, productive relationship with the private sector and wider space community.

As a tangible example of this, we recently announced the Emirates Mission to the Asteroid Belt, which will have a 50/50 split between public- and private-sector contribution to the mission.

Q: The asteroid-belt mission in 2028 will fly by Venus and survey seven asteroids. What do you hope to learn, and what are the biggest obstacles to success?

A: There is much to be learned from close inspection of this asteroid belt. Foremost, the mission will offer us greater insight into the origin of these asteroids, which in turn, could teach us much about the history of the universe and life itself.

By investigating the emergence of organic compounds on the asteroids, we can potentially better understand how water, and in turn life, came to be here on Earth.

The mission is, of course, immensely challenging from an engineering perspective, not least because it will span a distance more than 10 times that of our recent journey to Mars.

Q: The country clearly plans to be a leader in the space realm. How is the UAE encouraging the next generation of scientists?

We pride ourselves on our collaboration with other nations, space agencies and international companies, and recognize that the future of space is very much a global opportunity.

– Sarah Al Amiri

A: Inspiring the next generation of scientists, and technologists, here in the UAE is always front of mind for me and is a natural synergy between my roles at the Space Agency and as a minister for public education.

As an agency, we host a youth council which aims to empower and support talented young Emiratis with an interest in space, as well as to ensure their perspectives are shared with us.

We are also working closely with schools and universities throughout the Emirates to ensure STEM pathways are open to all.

The majority of the mission team for the Emirates Mars Mission was under the age of 35 – demonstrable proof that age is not a barrier here.

Q: International cooperation has been an important part of the UAE’s space endeavors. Its astronauts train with NASA in the United States and it has worked with other international partners for such missions as launching the Rashid rover to the moon. Do you plan to continue such partnerships or is the UAE interested in building the facilities to provide more of these functions at home?

A: We pride ourselves on our collaboration with other nations, space agencies and international companies, and recognize that the future of space is very much a global opportunity.

International partnerships are key, not only because of the potential to share capabilities, technologies and experiences, but also to shape governance from a regulatory and policy perspective. This is particularly important for sustainability, commerciality and the avoidance of conflict.

Moving forward, we very much look forward to forging new partnerships as well as convening established and emerging space powers to further drive cooperation.